Contents

SIPRI Yearbook 2021

Contents
Preface
Abbreviations and conventions
- Abbreviations and conventions
- Conventions
- Geographical regions and subregions
SIPRI Yearbook online
Introduction
1. Introduction: International stability and human security in 2020
- I. Security issues in 2020: A global overview
- II. The Covid‑19 pandemic
- III. The US election
- IV. International cooperation
Part I. Armed conflict and conflict management, 2020
2. Global developments in armed conflicts, peace processes and peace operations
- Overview
- I. Tracking armed conflicts and peace processes
- II. Global and regional trends and developments in multilateral peace operations
- III. Table of multilateral peace operations, 2020
3. Armed conflict and peace processes in the Americas
- Overview
- I. Key general developments in the region
- II. Armed conflict and the peace process in Colombia
- III. Armed conflict in Mexico
4. Armed conflict and peace processes in Asia and Oceania
- Overview
- I. Key general developments in the region
- II. Armed conflict and peace processes in South Asia
- III. Armed conflict and peace processes in South East Asia
5. Armed conflict and peace processes in Europe
- Overview
- I. Key general developments in the region
- II. The interstate armed conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan
- III. Armed conflict and the peace process in Ukraine
6. Armed conflict and peace processes in the Middle East and North Africa
- Overview
- I. Key general developments in the region
- II. Armed conflict and peace processes in Iraq, Syria and Turkey
- III. The Israeli–Palestinian conflict and peace process
- IV. Armed conflict and peace processes in North Africa
- V. Armed conflict and peace processes in Yemen
7. Armed conflict and peace processes in sub-Saharan Africa
- Overview
- I. Key general developments in the region
- II. Armed conflict and peace processes in West Africa
- III. Armed conflict and peace processes in Central Africa
- IV. Armed conflict and peace processes in East Africa
Part II. Military spending and armaments, 2020
8. Military expenditure
- Overview
- I. Global developments in military expenditure, 2020
- II. Regional developments in military expenditure, 2020
- III. Transparency in government reporting on military expenditure in South East Asia
9. International arms transfers and developments in arms production
- Overview
- I. Developments in arms transfers, 2016–20
- II. Developments among the suppliers of major arms, 2016–20
- III. Developments among the recipients of major arms, 2016–20
- IV. The financial value of states’ arms exports
- V. Trends in arms production, 2019
10. World nuclear forces
- Overview
- I. United States nuclear forces
- II. Russian nuclear forces
- III. British nuclear forces
- IV. French nuclear forces
- V. Chinese nuclear forces
- VI. Indian nuclear forces
- VII. Pakistani nuclear forces
- VIII. Israeli nuclear forces
- IX. North Korean nuclear forces
- X. Global stocks and production of fissile materials, 2020
Part III. Non-proliferation, arms control and disarmament, 2020
11. Nuclear disarmament, arms control and non-proliferation
- Overview
- I. Russian–United States nuclear arms control and disarmament
- II. Implementation of the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action on Iran’s nuclear programme
- III. Multilateral nuclear arms control, disarmament and non-proliferation treaties and initiatives
12. Chemical and biological security threats
- Overview
- I. The unfolding Covid‑19 pandemic
- II. Biological weapon disarmament and non-proliferation
- III. Allegations of use of chemical weapons in Syria
- IV. Use of novichok agents
- V. Chemical arms control and disarmament
13. Conventional arms control and regulation of new weapon technologies
- Overview
- I. Global and regional instruments for conventional arms control
- II. The group of governmental experts on lethal autonomous weapon systems
- III. Cyberspace and the malicious use of information and communications technology
- IV. Developments in space security, 2020
- V. The withdrawal of the United States from the Treaty on Open Skies
- VI. International transparency in arms procurement and military expenditure as confidence-building measures
14. Dual-use and arms trade controls
- Overview
- I. The Arms Trade Treaty
- II. Multilateral arms embargoes
- III. The multilateral export control regimes
- IV. Developments in the European Union’s dual-use and arms trade controls
Annexes
Annex A. Arms control and disarmament agreements
- I. Universal treaties
- II. Regional treaties
- III. Bilateral treaties
Annex B. International security cooperation bodies
- I. Bodies with a global focus or membership
- II. Bodies with a regional focus or membership
- III. Strategic trade control regimes
Annex C. Chronology 2020
About the authors
Errata
- Errata

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SIPRI Yearbook 2021

12. Chemical and biological security threats

Chapter:: 12. Chemical and biological security threats
Source:: SIPRI Yearbook 2021
Author(s):: Filippa Lentzo, Caitríona Mcleish

In 2020 the Covid‑19 pandemic changed the world in a way that very few had anticipated. Section I outlines the timeline of the pandemic; the impacts on people’s health and on society; competing theories on the origin of the virus; studies into the origins; and its implications for global biosecurity architecture. By the end of 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) had received reports of over 82 million cases of Covid‑19 worldwide, and there had been over 1.8 million recorded deaths. The actual number of infections and recorded deaths were likely to be considerably higher from undiagnosed cases and generally poor Covid‑19-related data. The pandemic’s global socio-economic impacts were at levels unprecedented since World War II.

Citation (MLA):: Lentzo, Filippa, and Caitríona Mcleish. "12. Chemical and biological security threats." SIPRI Yearbook. SIPRI. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2016. Web. 15 Oct. 2024. <https://www.sipriyearbook.org/view/9780192847577/sipri-9780192847577-chapter-012.xml>.
Citation (APA):: Lentzo, F., & Mcleish, C. (2016). 12. Chemical and biological security threats. In SIPRI, SIPRI Yearbook 2021: Armaments, Disarmament and International Security. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Retrieved 15 Oct. 2024, from https://www.sipriyearbook.org/view/9780192847577/sipri-9780192847577-chapter-012.xml
Citation (Chicago):: Lentzo, Filippa, and Caitríona Mcleish. "12. Chemical and biological security threats." In SIPRI Yearbook 2021: Armaments, Disarmament and International Security, SIPRI. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016). Retrieved 15 Oct. 2024, from https://www.sipriyearbook.org/view/9780192847577/sipri-9780192847577-chapter-012.xml

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