Contents

SIPRI Yearbook 2019

Contents
Preface
Abbreviations and conventions
- Conventions
- Geographical regions and subregions
SIPRI Yearbook online
Introduction
1. Introduction: International stability and human security in 2018
- I. The crisis of nuclear arms control
- II. Nuclear non-proliferation concerns
- III. The use of chemical weapons
- IV. International tensions and the dynamics of power
- V. Human security and international cooperation
- VI. In conclusion: The 50th edition of the Yearbook
Part I. Armed conflict and conflict management, 2018
2. Armed conflict and peace processes
- Overview
- I. Tracking armed conflicts and peace processes in 2018
- II. Armed conflict and peace processes in the Americas
- III. Armed conflict and peace processes in Asia and Oceania
- IV. Armed conflict and peace processes in Europe
- V. Armed conflict and peace processes in the Middle East and North Africa
- VI. Armed conflict and peace processes in sub-Saharan Africa
3. Peace operations and conflict management
- Overview
- I. Global trends and developments in peace operations
- II. Regional trends and developments in peace operations
- III. Table of multilateral peace operations, 2018
Part II. Military spending and armaments, 2018
4. Military expenditure
- Overview
- I. Global developments in military expenditure
- II. Transparency in military expenditure
5. International arms transfers and developments in arms production
- Overview
- I. Global trends in arms transfers, 2018
- II. Supplier developments, 2018
- III. Recipient developments, 2018
- IV. Transparency in arms transfers
- V. The financial value of states’ arms exports
- VI. Arms production and military services
6. World nuclear forces
- Overview
- I. US nuclear forces
- II. Russian nuclear forces
- III. British nuclear forces
- IV. French nuclear forces
- V. Chinese nuclear forces
- VI. Indian nuclear forces
- VII. Pakistani nuclear forces
- VIII. Israeli nuclear forces
- IX. North Korea’s military nuclear capabilities
- X. Global stocks and production of fissile materials, 2018
Part III. Non-proliferation, arms control and disarmament, 2018
7. Nuclear disarmament, arms control and non-proliferation
- Overview
- I. North Korean–US nuclear diplomacy
- II. US–Russian nuclear arms control and disarmament
- III. Implementation of the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action
- IV. Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons
- V. Other developments related to multilateral treaties and initiatives on nuclear arms control, disarmament and non-proliferation
8. Chemical and biological security threats
- Overview
- I. Allegations of use of chemical weapons in Syria
- II. The Skripal case: Assassination attempt in the United Kingdom using a toxic chemical
- III. Chemical weapons: Arms control and disarmament
- IV. Biological weapon disarmament and non-proliferation
9. Global instruments for conventional arms control
- Overview
- I. The Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons and lethal autonomous weapon systems
- II. Anti-Personnel Mines and Cluster Munitions
- III. Control measures on small arms and light weapons
- IV. The UN Secretary-General’s launch of a new disarmament agenda
- V. Cyber arms control and resilience
10. Dual-use and arms trade controls
- Overview
- I. The Arms Trade Treaty
- II. Multilateral embargoes on arms and dual-use items
- III. The export control regimes
- IV. Developments in the European Union’s dual-use and arms trade controls
- V. Controlling technology transfers and foreign direct investment: The limits of export controls
Annexes
Annex A. Arms control and disarmament agreements
- I. Universal treaties
- II. Regional treaties
- III. Bilateral treaties
Annex B. International security cooperation bodies
- I. Bodies with a global focus or membership
- II. Bodies with a regional focus or membership
- III. Strategic trade control regimes
Annex C. Chronology 2018
About the authors

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SIPRI Yearbook 2019

IV. Biological weapon disarmament and non-proliferation

Chapter:: 8. Chemical and biological security threats
Source:: SIPRI Yearbook 2019
Author(s):: Caitríona McLeish, Filippa Lentzos

The principal legal instrument against biological warfare is the 1972 Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BWC).¹ In 2018, Palestine and Niue acceded to the BWC, and the Central African Republic ratified the convention, becoming the 182nd state party.²

Citation (MLA):: McLeish, Caitríona, and Filippa Lentzos. "8. Chemical and biological security threats." SIPRI Yearbook. SIPRI. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2016. Web. 19 May. 2025. <https://www.sipriyearbook.org/view/9780198839996/sipri-9780198839996-chapter-8-div1-058.xml>.
Citation (APA):: McLeish, C., & Lentzos, F. (2016). 8. Chemical and biological security threats. In SIPRI, SIPRI Yearbook 2019: Armaments, Disarmament and International Security. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Retrieved 19 May. 2025, from https://www.sipriyearbook.org/view/9780198839996/sipri-9780198839996-chapter-8-div1-058.xml
Citation (Chicago):: McLeish, Caitríona, and Filippa Lentzos. "8. Chemical and biological security threats." In SIPRI Yearbook 2019: Armaments, Disarmament and International Security, SIPRI. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016). Retrieved 19 May. 2025, from https://www.sipriyearbook.org/view/9780198839996/sipri-9780198839996-chapter-8-div1-058.xml

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