Contents

SIPRI Yearbook 2024

Contents
Preface
Abbreviations and conventions
SIPRI Yearbook online
Introduction
1. Introduction: International stability and human security in 2023
- I. World order
- II. A disordered world
- III. Laws and norms in question
- IV. International security and stability in question
- V. International instability, insecurity and the ecological crisis
- VI. Cooperation and security
Part I. Armed conflict and conflict management, 2023
2. Trends in armed conflict
- Overview
- I. Global trends and regional developments in armed conflict
- II. Peace processes
- III. Armed conflicts active in 2023
3. Multilateral peace operations
- Overview
- I. Global trends and developments in peace operations
- II. Organizations conducting multilateral peace operations
- III. The way forward for multilateral peace operations
- IV. Table of multilateral peace operations, 2023
4. Thematic issues in armed conflict
- Overview
- I. The role of the Wagner Group and other Russian private military and security companies in armed conflicts in 2023
- II. Food systems and geopolitics
- III. Climate, peace and security in Yemen
Part II. Military spending and armaments, 2023
5. Military expenditure and developments in arms production
- Overview
- I. Global developments in military expenditure, 2023
- II. Regional developments in military expenditure, 2023
- III. The SIPRI Top 100 arms-producing and military services companies, 2022: Regional and national developments
- IV. The arms industry facing rising demand
6. International arms transfers
- Overview
- I. Global trends in arms transfers, 2019–23
- II. Developments among the suppliers of major arms, 2019–23
- III. Developments among the recipients of major arms, 2019–23
7. World nuclear forces
- Overview
- I. United States nuclear forces
- II. Russian nuclear forces
- III. British nuclear forces
- IV. French nuclear forces
- V. Chinese nuclear forces
- VI. Indian nuclear forces
- VII. Pakistani nuclear forces
- VIII. North Korean nuclear forces
- IX. Israeli nuclear forces
- X. Global stocks and production of fissile materials, 2023
Part III. Non-proliferation, arms control and disarmament, 2023
8. Nuclear disarmament, arms control and non-proliferation
- Overview
- I. Nuclear arms control involving China, Russia and the United States
- II. Multilateral nuclear arms control, disarmament and nonproliferation treaties and initiatives
- III. The Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action on Iran’s nuclear programme
- IV. Attacks on nuclear installations in Ukraine and the response missions of the International Atomic Energy Agency
9. Chemical, biological and health security threats
- Overview
- I. Allegations of and reactions to chemical weapon use
- II. Chemical weapon control and disarmament
- III. Biological weapon disarmament and non-proliferation
- IV. Health security
10. Conventional arms control and the regulation of inhumane weapons
- Overview
- I. Multilateral regulation of inhumane weapons and other conventional weapons of humanitarian concern
- II. Explosive weapons and the protection of civilians during the Russia–Ukraine and Israel–Hamas wars
- III. Arms control, non-proliferation and use of missiles
- IV. The end of the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe
- V. The Global Framework for Through-life Conventional Ammunition Management
- VI. International transparency in arms procurement and military expenditure as confidence-building measures
11. International governance of artificial intelligence, cyberspace and outer space
- Overview
- I. Governing the impact of artificial intelligence on international peace and security
- II. Governance of cyberspace and the malicious use of information and communications technology
- III. Developments in space security governance
12. Dual-use and arms trade controls
- Overview
- I. The Arms Trade Treaty
- II. Multilateral arms embargoes
- III. The multilateral export control regimes
- IV. Developments in the European Union’s dual-use and arms trade controls
Annexes
Annex A. Arms control and disarmament agreements
- I. Universal treaties
- II. Regional treaties
- III. Bilateral treaties
Annex B. International security cooperation bodies
- I. Bodies with a global focus or membership
- II. Bodies with a regional focus or membership
- III. Strategic trade control regimes
Annex C. Chronology 2023
About the authors

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SIPRI Yearbook 2024

IV. Health security

Chapter:: 9. Chemical, biological and health security threats
Source:: SIPRI Yearbook 2024
Author(s):: Una Jakob, Filippa Lentzos

Global health security centres on strong and resilient public health systems to prevent, detect and respond to infectious disease threats, anywhere in the world. Risks to global health security include the emergence and spread of new infectious diseases (often facilitated by the globalization of travel and trade) and the rise of drug-resistant, disease-causing pathogens.¹ Climate change is also likely to alter the prevalence and spread of disease.² Nonetheless, according to the World Health Organization (WHO), 2023 was a record year for disease elimination, with several countries eliminating infectious diseases due to a combination of national and collaborative efforts.³ There were two public health emergencies of international concern in 2023: Covid‑19 and mpox (known until 2022 as monkey pox). Both were declared to have ended during 2023. This section first reviews developments in these two public health emergencies, and then briefly discusses ongoing efforts to negotiate a pandemic treaty.

Citation (MLA):: Jakob, Una, and Filippa Lentzos. "9. Chemical, biological and health security threats." SIPRI Yearbook. SIPRI. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2016. Web. 14 May. 2025. <https://www.sipriyearbook.org/view/9780198930570/sipri-9780198930570-chapter-009-div1-058.xml>.
Citation (APA):: Jakob, U., & Lentzos, F. (2016). 9. Chemical, biological and health security threats. In SIPRI, SIPRI Yearbook 2024: Armaments, Disarmament and International Security. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Retrieved 14 May. 2025, from https://www.sipriyearbook.org/view/9780198930570/sipri-9780198930570-chapter-009-div1-058.xml
Citation (Chicago):: Jakob, Una, and Filippa Lentzos. "9. Chemical, biological and health security threats." In SIPRI Yearbook 2024: Armaments, Disarmament and International Security, SIPRI. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016). Retrieved 14 May. 2025, from https://www.sipriyearbook.org/view/9780198930570/sipri-9780198930570-chapter-009-div1-058.xml

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